GCSE Psychology 9-1

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  7.2.2 - Van Houtte and Jarvis (1995) The Role of Pets in Preadolescent Psychosocial Development: Aims - To investigate the impact of pet ownership on adolescent personality provided evidence in terms of self-esteem and a more positive self-concept. Procedures -  130 pupils aged 8-13 white american, divided into two groups, pet owners and non pet owners and then matched on marital status, wealth and siblings. Results - 1. Higher self esteem was reported in pet owners than non pet owners. 2. 11 years old with pets had more positive self concept. 3. Higher autonomy was reported by pet owners of all ages. Conclusions -  Pet owning adolescents would report higher levels of autonomy and self esteem than non pet owners. Pets provide unconditional positive regard for pet owners.  Strengths - The results of the experiment were content with the hypothesis. Well known scales were used which is a reliable way of measuring. Can be used to

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  7.2.1 - Vohs and Schooler (2008) The Value of Believing in Free Will: Encouraging a Belief in Determinism Increases Cheating - Aims -  To investigate whether inducing participants to believe that human behaviour is predetermined would encourage treating. Procedures -  In experiment 1: Participants read either text that encouraged a belief in determinism (i.e that behaviour is the result of environmental and genetic factors) or neutral test. Results - In experiment 2: Participants who read determinism text cheated by overpaying themselves for performance on a cognitive task, participants who read free will did not. Participants in the anti-free will condition reported weaker free will beliefs than the other participants in the control condition. Conclusions -  The more participants endorsed statements of free will, the less they paid themselves.

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  7.1.6 - Understand the use of trait theory as a measure of personality, including strengths and weaknesses of trait theory: b) Allport (1936) cardinal, central and secondary personality traits - In 1936 allport found that one English dictionary alone contained more than 4,000 words describing different personality traits. He categorised these traits into three levels. Cardinal Traits - These are traits that dominate an individuals whole life, often to the point where an individual becomes known specifically for these traits. These are rare and tend to develop later in life. Central Traits - These are general characteristics that form the basic foundations of personality. These central traits, whilst not as dominating as cardinal traits, are the major characteristics you might use to describe another person. Terms such as 'intelligent', 'honest', 'shy' and 'anxious', are considered central traits. Secondary Tr

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  7.1.5 - Understand how personality can be measured, including: a) Personality scales -  Finding scales to measure particular personality constructs. Personality scales will measure where you are on a spectrum for a particular personality trait. Measuring on an individual trait is more reliable as it generalises less. b) Personality types -  This is a more generalising approach as they group together multiple traits rather than measure them individually. They are more used to roughly fit people into a category.

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  7.1.4 - Understand the role of internal and external influences on the self and self-esteem, including: a) temperament -  Your temperament permanently effects your behaviour and in a big way. It may determine the nature of the situations you get yourself into and how you react to them and what effects they have on you. Your temperament also effects your self esteem. b) Experience - Experiences shapes the way you think about the world and yourself as it shapes your schema. It is not just dependent on experience alone its how you perceive these experiences and whether you learn from them or not. Childhood experiences shape our base schemas and temperament as this is where we develop most of our understanding of things.

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  7.1.3 - Understand the Humanistic Theory of Self, including strengths and weaknesses of each theory: a) Humanistic explanations of the development of self-esteem - Humanistic theories look at the whole individual and stresses concepts such as free will, self efficiency and self actualisation. Rogers (1951) believed feelings of self worth developed in early childhood and were formed by interactions of the child with their mother or father.  b) Humanistic explanations of the development of personality -  This is defined as 'the organised', the consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about ourselves. The self is the humanistic term for who we are as a person. It can be likened to the 'soul'. It is mainly influenced by our experiences in life and how we perceive them. Two primary sources are childhood experiences and evaluation by others. We want to feel, experience and behave in ways that are consistent with our self image. Rogers (195

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  7.1.2 - Understand the role of identity and free will in the development of self, including strengths and weaknesses of each theory: Erikson (1959) -  1. Trust vs Mistrust - Hope / Anxiety - 0 to 1 ½ 2. Autonomy vs Shame - Will / Inadequacy - 1 ½ to 3 3. Initiative vs Guilt - Purpose / Insecurity - 3 to 5 4. Industry vs Inferiority - Competency / Inferiority - 5 to 12 5. Identity vs Role Confusion - Fidelity / Identity Crisis - 12 to 18 6. Intimacy vs Isolation - Love / Loneliness - 18 to 40 7. Generativity vs Stagnation - Care / Disconnected - 40 to 65 8. Ego Integrity vs Despair - Wisdom / Despair - 65+ Strengths -  Changed how people think of later years in life. Realistic personality development. Provides a framework. Weaknesses -  They are very vague descriptions. Does not explain the causes. Does not explain how it effects you in the future. Baumeister (2008) -  Some actions are freer than others and the difference is palp

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  7.1.1 - Understand the concepts of the self and self-concept, including: Lewis (1990) a) Existential Self -  The sense of being separate and distinct from others and the awareness of the constancy of the self. Begins as early as 2-3 months old. b) Categorical Self -  Having realised that they are a separate entity, the child now becomes aware that they are an object in the world and that they have properties too. Rogers (1959) c) Self Image -   How we see ourselves, important to good mental health. d) Self Esteem - Self esteem (or self worth) comprises what we think of ourselves. e) Ideal Self - This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals or ambitions. f) Self-Actualisation -  When someones ideal self is congruent with their self image. g) Congruence -  When a persons ideal self and actual experience are very similar. h) Incongruence -  When a persons ideal self is not similar to their actual exper

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  6.2.2 - Charlton et al (2000) Children’s Playground Behaviour Across Five Years of Broadcast Television: A Naturalistic Study in a Remote Community: Aims -  To investigate the effect of the introduction of satellite TV on the aggressive behaviour of children. Procedures -  Conducted on 3-8 year olds who had not yet seen TV. aggressive behaviour was analysed before the study and then after. A schedule of pro-social and anti-social behaviour was kept. Results -  There were no significant differences in the results. The levels of anti-social behaviour were very low on first observation and remained this way throughout various viewings. The children displayed almost twice as much pro-social behaviour than anti-social behaviour both before and after the introduction of TV. Conclusion -  Exposure to more violent TV does not necessarily result in an increase in aggressive behaviour. Strengths -  Applicable to society as TV viewed on a regular bas

Psychology 9-1 GCSE - 6.2.1 - Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961) Transmission of Aggression through Imitation of Aggressive Models: Aims -  To investigate if social behaviour can be acquired by observation and imitation. Procedures -  There was a control group with no model shown, a group with an aggressive model, and one with a non-aggressive model. Each group had 24 children in it. 12 boys and 12 girls. Results -  Children who observed in the aggressive model were a lot more likely to imitate aggressive responses. Boys were more likely to imitate same sex models than girls. Boys were more physically aggressive than girls. Girls showed more physical aggression if the model was male, but more verbal if they were female. Conclusions -  The findings support Bandura's social learning theory. Children learn social behaviour such as aggression through the process of observational learning. Strengths -  It allows for precise control of variables, such as the gender. S

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  6.1.4 - Understand two treatments to rehabilitate and reduce criminal and antisocial behaviour and increase pro-social behaviour, including strengths and weaknesses of each treatment: a) Token Economy Programmes -  Use the principles from operant conditioning as a behaviour modification technique. The focus is on the offender and the guard identifying. What the desired behaviour is e.g not swearing or getting into a fight and are therefore used to encourage pro-social behaviour. If the offender does the desired behaviour they are given a token - this acts as a secondary reinforcer that can be traded in for a primary reinforcer which meets a basic need. This acts as a way of reinforcing the good behaviour. It is important that an exchange rate is established, this determines how many tokens are required for the reward to be given. Strengths -  Milby found that TEP were successful in psychiatric hospitals however follow up studies are needed to say if

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  6.1.3 - Understand the effects of punishments on recidivism, including strengths and weaknesses of each punishment: Recidivism -  The tendency of a criminal to re-offend. Prison -  The use of prisons to control crime has increased in frequency in the last decade. Most recently, mandatory minimum sentencing policies have gained widespread popularity throughout the united states, severely limiting judicial discretion in sentencing. The rationale for minimum sentencing is it will be a deterrent to criminals to re-offend. Strengths - The unpleasant environment makes them not want to go back. Negative social stigma with being an ex con. All the while they're in there they can't re-offend Weaknesses -  Negative environment can cause re-offence. Adverse effect on low risk offenders. Psychological deep freeze effect where it has little to no effect. Community Sentencing -  Strengths -  Can stop offenders recommitting becaus

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  6.1.2 - Understand biological explanations of criminality, including personality types (Eysenck, 1964), to include strengths and weaknesses of the theory: a) Extraversion -  This is associated with traits such as sociability, talkativeness and excitability.  b) Introversion -  A preference for quiet settings and being alone, the opposite of extraversion. c) Neuroticism -  A tendency towards anxiety, self doubt, depression and shyness and other negative feelings. d) Psychoticism -  Aggression, impulsitivity, aloofness and antisocial behavior.

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  6.1.1 - Understand learning theories as an explanation of criminality, including strengths and weaknesses of each theory: Operant Conditioning (Skinner, 1948) - a) Positive Reinforcement -  This strengthens behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding. He used a rat in a box to prove this with a lever that released food. b) Negative Reinforcement -  The removal of an unpleasant reinforce can also strengthen behavior. This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of adverse stimulus.  c) Positive Punishment -  Positive punishment removes a positive reinforce to weaken a response.  d) Negative Punishment -  This is applying an unpleasant stimulus to weaken a response. e) Primary Reinforcers -  There is no learning necessary for these to be reinforcing. These are things like eating, sleeping etc. f) Secondary Reinforcers -  This is known as conditioned reinforcement. This refers to a situation whe

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  5.3.1 - Understand social and cultural issues in psychology, including: a) know the terms ‘society’ and ‘social issues’ -  Society - A group of individuals involved in a persistent social interaction, or large social group sharing the same geographical or social territory. Social issues - A social issue is a problem that influences a considerable amount of individuals in a society. These issues are often out of an individuals control. b) Know the term 'culture' -  The arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement reguarded collectively. 

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  5.2.2 - Haney, Banks, and Zimbardo (1973) A Study of Prisoners and Guards in a Simulated Prison: Aims -  To find out whether the brutality reported in prisons was due to the sadistic personalities of the guards or the situation.  Procedure -  Randomly assigned people who applied to guard or prisoner set up in a prison environment, prisoners were treated like real prisoners. Referred to not by their name but by their number. Guards were dressed identically.  Results -  Within a very short time, both guards and prisoners were settling into their roles. Within hours of the experiment the guards began to harass prisoners. Guards found it easy to dehumanize the prisoners.  Conclusions -  People will readily conform to the social roles they are expected to play. Especially if the roles are strongly stereotyped. The prison environment was an important factor in creating the guards brutal behavior. Deindividation can explain the guards behavior, as the

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  5.2.1 - Piliavin et al (1969) Good Samaritanism: An Underground Phenomenon?: Aims -  To investigate factors affecting helping behavior. Procedures -   They investigated helping behavior with: 1. The type of victim (drunk or ill). 2. The race of the victim (black or white). 3. The speed of helping. 4. The frequency of helping. 5. The race of the helper. It investigated this on a train on a 5-7 minute journey. Results -  Helping behavior was a lot higher than previous laboratory studies. They did not investigate the effects of the models helping as people stepped in before the model could. Race had no effects on the results. But there was a slight tendency for some race helping. Diffusion of responsibility was not present the more bystanders there were. Conclusions - Observation of an emergency situation creates an emotional arousal in bystanders. State of arousal can be effected by factors like; if you see yourself in the victim, bei

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  5.1.1 - Know the terms: a) Obedience -  A form of social influence where an individual acts in response to a direct order from another person, who is usually an authority figure.  b) Conformity -  A type of social influence involving a change in belief or behavior in order to fit in with a group.  c) Deindividuation -  The phenomenon of people losing self awareness, restraint and responsibility for their actions when in a group. In a sense people will do things in a group they would otherwise not have done individually.  d) Bystander effect -  Also called bystander apathy. Refers to the tendency of people to take no action in an emergency situation when there are others present. 

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  4.2.2 - Sperry (1968) Hemisphere Deconnection and Unity in Conscious Awareness: Aims -  To show the independent streams of conscious awareness possessed by each hemisphere and to show how each hemisphere has its own memories.  Procedures -  It had two visual fields. Left is what we can see on our right, right is what we can see on our right. Information from the left visual field goes to the right hemisphere. Information from the right visual field goes to the left hemisphere. They were given visual tasks and stimuli and tactile tasks.  Results -  Participants would recognize the stimuli if it was presented again to the same visual field, but if it was presented to a different one from before, they would claim to never have seen it. Objects placed in the right hand could be described in speech or writing, if the same objects were placed in the left hand participants couldn't recognize them.  Conclusions -  People with split brains have two

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  4.2.1 - Damasio et al (1994) The Return of Phineas Gage: Clues About the Brain from the Skull of a Famous Patient: Aims -  To investigate if areas other than the frontal lobe were damaged.  Procedures -  1. They took pictures and measurements of the skull and built a 3D replica of Gage's skull. 2. They measured the iron rod. 3. They measured the possible exit and entry points for the iron rod.  4. Found 5 most likely paths and mapped out damaged areas in each case. Results -  Found that it was likely to have been damage in both hemispheres of the frontal lobe. Confidently assumed that the frontal lobe was only damaged. Found that the white matter in the left hemisphere had more damage caused to it.  Conclusion -  The ventromedial area of the frontal lobe seems to be important for making sensible decisions and for controlling our impulses. Gage found these things difficult after his injury, and evidence suggests people with the sa

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  4.1.4 - Understand the impact of neurological damage on cognitions and behaviour, including: a) The term 'visual agnosia' - c) The symptoms of visual agnosia -  This is the inability  of the brain to recognise or understand visual stimuli. A person with visual agnosia has otherwise normal visual functioning and can see but is unable to interpret or recognise what they are seeing. It is usually found in adults who have had brain damage. The symptoms can be, inability to recognise and object by its shape, difficulty identifying objects that look similar in shape, difficulty with line drawings and recognising objects shown from uncommon views.  b) The term 'prosopagnosia' -  d) The symptoms of prosopagnosia -  This is known as 'face blindness'. It is a disorder in which people are unable to recognise faces. Those with the condition can see individual parts of a face but can't process the features together as a whole. Theref

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  4.1.3 - Know what neurons and synapses are, including: a) Function of neurotransmitters -  Neurotransmitters are electrochemical messengers that transmit nerve inpulses across the synaptic gap during the process of synaptic transmission. Some are excitory and some are inhibitory. Excitory neurotransmitters make the post synaptic cell more likely to fire. While the inhibitory neurotransmitters make them less likely to fire. b) Synaptic functioning -  Synapses are the junction between neurons. Communications flow via this. c) How neurons and synapses interact -  , usually in the form of neurotransmitter molecules secreted by the presynaptic neuron that travels a short distance across the synaptic cleft, this is the actual space between the neurons. Once at the post synaptic neuron, some of the neurotransmitters will attach themselves to some receptors. d) Understand the role of the central nervous system -  The central nervous system (CNS) consis

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  4.1.2 - Understand the lateralisation of function in the hemispheres, including: a) Asymmetrical function -  Ellegood et al found that 'autistic' mice showed more symmetry between the left and right hemispheres of the cerebellum when compared to controls without mutations in the autism genes. Interestingly, the 'autistic' mice showed more asymmetry between the left and right hemispheres of the cerebellum. A wide range of studies have found that cerebellum size and functional connectivity is correlated with autism-related functions. Such as emotion, regulation and attention. b) Role of the left hemispheres - c) Role of the right hemispheres -  Brain hemispheres and their functions d) Role of the corpus callosum - The corpus callosum consists of about 200 million axons that interconnect the two hemispheres. The primary function of the corpus callosum is to intergrate motor, sensory and

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  4.1.1 - Know the structure and function of the brain, including: a) Temporal -  This is located on the bottom section of the brain. This is also the location of the primary auditory cortex, which is important for interpreting sounds and the language we hear. This portion of the brain is also heavily associated with the formation of memories. Damage here can lead to problems with memory, speech perception and language skills.  b) Occupital -  This is located at the back portion of the brain. It is associated with interpreting visual stimuli and information. Damage here can cause visual problems such as difficulty recognising objects, inability to identify colours and trouble recognising words. c) Frontal -  This is located at the front of the brain, it is associated with reasoning, motor skills, higher level cognition and expressive language. Damage to the frontal lobe can result in changes in sexual habits, socialisation, attention and increased ri

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  3.3.1 - Understand the nature and nurture debate, including: a) The term 'nature' -  Nature simply means the properties or characteristics of us that are determined since birth, rather than created through experience.  b) The term 'nurture' -  Nurture means the properties or characteristics we develop or learn through experience and how we are nurtured. c) the use of content, theories, and research drawn from psychological problems to explain the nature and nurture debate -  Our nature may provide natural limits as to how much we can process and learn, but we can, through nurture fulfil this capacity. So nature is the overall determining factor. Francis Galton investigated this through various studies and assessments. When he did a study using twins, even if the twins had very different nurture they both turned out extremely similar. 

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  3.2.2 - Young (2007) Cognitive Behaviour Therapy with Internet Addicts: Treatment Outcomes and Implications: Aim -  To investigate the efficiency of CBT therapy with internet addicts. Procedures -  The study investigated 114 clients who suffered from internet addiction and they received CBT at the centre for online addiction. This employed a survey research design and outcome variables such as client motivation, online time management, improved social relationships, improved sexual functioning, engagement in offline activity and ability to abstain from problematic applications were evaluated on the 3rd, 8th and 12th sessions over a 6 month follow up. Results - The results suggested that Caucasian, middle aged males with at least a 4 year degree were most likely to suffer from some form of internet addiction. Conclusions -  Preliminary analysis indicated that most clients were able to manage their presenting complaints by the 8th session and sym

Psychology  9-1 GCSE -  3.2.1 - Caspi et al. (2003) Influence of Life Stress on Depression: Moderation by a Polymorphism in the 5-HTT Gene: Aims -  To investigate whether functional change in the 5HTT gene is linked to a higher or lower risk of depression in an individual. Method -  The researchers used an opportunity sample from a cohort of participants who were part of another longitudinal study. There were 847 participants of 26 years old and they were split into 3 groups, depending on the length of their alleles on their 5HTT transporter gene. Group 1 - Two short alleles, group 2 - one short and one long allele, group 3 - two long alleles. 1. Stressful life events occurring after the 21st birthday and before the 26th birthday were assessed using a life history calendar.  2. Post-year depression was assessed using the diagnostic interview schedule. 3. A correlation was tested between stressful life events and depression. Between the length of the alleles and depress

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  3.1.8 - The use of drugs as a treatment, including strengths and weaknesses of each treatment: a) Depression -  Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRI's) increase the levels of serotonin in the brain by preventing the re-uptake of it - Pros -  Less weight gain. Lower rates of withdrawal symptoms. Cons -  Higher rates of withdrawal and sexual problems. Higher rates of diarrhoea. Increased risk of stomach bleeding. Serotonin Norepinephrine re-uptake inhibitors (SNRI's) block the re-uptake of two neurotransmitters, serotonin and norepinphine, elevating the concentration in the nerve synapse to help elevate mood or treat other conditions - Pros -  Once a day dosing. More effective in difficult to treat depression. Approved to treat pain symptoms. Cons - May cause nausea and vomiting within the first week. May increase blood pressure. b) Addiction -  Benzpdoazepines -  Pros - Reduce anxiety an

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  3.1.7 - The use of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) as a treatment, including strengths and weaknesses of each therapy: CBT replaced psychoanalysis as the best overall treatment for anxiety disorders such as OCD. People can be predisposed to developing these kinds of disorders if they have a natural tendency to overdramatacise the consequences of their actions. People give into doing these repetitive actions as a result of intrusive thoughts. The first part of CBT deals with the cognitive side of things which includes rationalising the irrational thoughts and fears that cause the intrusive thoughts. The second, behavioural part of the therapy includes techniques such as exposure therapy to help the patient get out of their behaviour. a) Depression - Strengths - Patients can continue to use techniques used during their CBT course after they've finished it. CBT will also deal with the causes of their behaviour, which makes being able to manage i

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  3.1.6 - The use of learning theory as an explanation of addiction, including strengths and weaknesses of the explanation -  According to learning theory, addiction is simply a learned behaviour. In other words people learn to engage in addictive behaviour according to well established principles. There are three fundamental types of learning that apply to humans and animals alike. 1) Learning by paired association (classical conditioning). 2) Learning from the consequences of behavioural choice (operant conditioning). 3) Social learning (observing others). With classical conditioning you form associations between things and environmental cues. For example, if you smoke after work, you will pair smoking with finishing your work, the time or even the place you go to smoke, these cues create powerful cravings. We can unlearn these associations by time or by replacing the activity the cue is associated with. Counter-conditioning is a special type of conditioning

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  3.1.5 - the use of cognitive theory as an explanation of depression, including strengths and weaknesses of the explanation: Cognitive theories come into place where behaviorists fail to take into account thoughts and feelings. It is suggested depression results from maladaptive faulty or irrational cognition taking the form of distorted thoughts. These can be learnt socially or through lack of experiences that would facilitate the development of adaptive coping skills. Depressed people tend to view themselves, their environment and the future in negative ways. There are 3 main dysfunctional belief themes (or schemas) that dominate depressed peoples thinking. 1) I am defective or inadequate. 2) All of my experiences result id defects or failures. 3) The future is hopeless. Together these themes are described as the 'negative cognitive trio'. These beliefs also shape what someone pays attention to. People with depression have whats called 'selectiv

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  3.1.4 - the influence of genes as an explanation, including strengths and weaknesses of each explanation: a) Depression - People are not born with depression, but they can often be born with a raised susceptibility for it, this often runs in families. Being carried down through genes. Studies suggest that variations in many genes, each with a small effect combine and increase the risk of developing depression. The genes thought to be associated with depression have diverse functions in the brain. Some of these genes may control the production, transport and activity of chemicals called neurotransmitters, which relay chemical signals that allow nerve cells (neurones) to communicate with each other. This can result in a natural decrease of chemicals such as serotonin or endorphins being transmitted making you more susceptible to depression. b) Addiction -  Like depression, you can be made extremely susceptible to addiction by being born with whats called

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  3.1.3 how mental health problems affect individuals and society: Mental health issues impact everyone individually depending on the type of mental health issues and the individuals reaction to it. But all in all it has a very bad effect, this can be things like not being able to work because of issues like anxiety, depression and addiction. It also effects the individuals around them causing them distress. Mental health issues also have a large impact on society through things like social media or lowered in-person interaction.

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  3.1.2 - how the incidence of mental health problems changes over time: When looking at the change of diagnosed mental health issues there are many factors you should consider. As well as a natural increase as population increases. Society causes an increase in this largely, with aspects such as economy, culture and lifestyle. You must also consider the growing openness and acceptance of mental health issues as a factor. Mental health issues have long been shunned upon but as of recent influential people have opened up about their struggles with it. Things like medication and therapy have become more commonplace along with schools educating about various mental health issues. Mental health issues having less of a stigma makes it easier and more acceptable for people to seek help for their issues.

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  3.1.1 - Understand the two mental health problems unipolar depression and addiction, including: the symptoms and features according to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) of: a) Depression -  Depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest. Also called major depressive disorder or clinical depression. It can lead to a variety of emotional and physical problems. It requires long term treatment. Symptoms -  Feelings of sadness, tearfulness, emptiness or hopelessness. Angry outbursts, irritability or frustration. Sleep disturbances. Tiredness or lack of energy. Reduced or increased appetite. Slowed speaking, thinking or body movements. Frequent harmful thoughts and feelings of worthlessness or guilt. b) Addiction -  This can be the psychological and/or physical need for a stimulation or substance. Psychological symptoms -  Mood swings. Increased temper. Tiredness. Paran

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  2.3.1 Understand the reductionism and holism debate, including:  a) The terms 'reductionism' and 'reductionist' -  Reductionism is the practice of analyzing and describing a complex phenomenon in terms of its simple or fundamental constituents, especially when it is said to provide a sufficient explanation. You can reduce it down to a biological level (the lowest level), psychological and social (highest level). A reductionist is someone who believes in and practices reductionism.  b) The terms 'holism' and 'holistic' -  This is the theory that parts of a whole are in intimate interconnection, such that they can not exist indipendantly of the whole. Or cannot be understood without reference to the whole, which is thus regarded as greater than the sum of its parts.  c) the use of content, theories and research drawn from human memory to explain the reductionism and holism debate - Gestalt psychology looks at the behav

Psychology 9-1 GCSE -  2.2.2 - Peterson and Peterson (1959) Short-term retention of individual verbal items: Aims - To investigate the duration of short term memory. To test if information that is not rehearsed is lost quickly from short term memory. Procedure -  A lab experiment in which 24 participants had to recall meaningless three consonant syllables. They were presented one at a time and had to be recalled after intervals of 3,6,9,12 or 18 seconds. They were also asked to count backwards in three or fours to prevent rehearsal.  Results -  There was a rapid increase in forgetting as the time delay increased. Conclusions -  Short-term memory has a limited duration of about 18 seconds when rehersal is prevented. If a person is not allowed to rehearse the information will not transfer to their long term memory store. Strengths -  It supports the multistore model of memory ( Atkinson and Shiffrin 1969 ). Results are easily proven to be accurate to a degree.